A system of Church government originating with John Calvin. Its basic theory is the parity of all clergymen, holding that the "elder" (presbyteros) and "bishop" (episcopos) are the same. It does not admit, however, of congregational independence, but provides a definite gradation of government. The session governs the congregation; the presbytery, the synod, and the general assembly each holding jurisdiction over the other in the order named. Deacons and ruling elders (who are laymen) are chosen by the congregation, but the election of a teaching elder or pastor must be confirmed by the presbytery. In theology Presbyterianism has accepted Calvinism, but of late there is a tendency to modify the rigors of that system, and modernism has made severe inroads among its adherents. No invariable form of worship is used by Presbyterians, though books of worship have been drawn up as guides and adopted by some congregations. In general the sermon, with extempore prayers and hymns (often metrical versions of the Psalms) form the norm of service. Presbyterianism is the established religion of Scotland, and its strength elsewhere is largely among those of Scottish descent. There are also large numbers of Presbyterians among the Irish of Ulster and a considerable Presbyterian body in England. The first organized Presbytery in the United States was that of Philadelphia, organized in 1706. John Witherspoon, the only clerical signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Presbyterian. A considerable missionary and benevolent work is carried on by Presbyterians both at home and abroad. Presbyterianism is divided into a number of separate bodies, differing slightly in details of doctrine or worship. The Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, having essentially the same creedal basis and similar ecclesiastical organization, for purposes of fellowship and conference have organized a World Alliance. See also,