Ha-Yonah

Classification.

In the broadest meaning of the term Jewish periodicals include all magazines as well as all newspapers which, either because of the language in which they are published or because of the special nature of their contents, appeal particularly to Jewish readers. Of the newspapers most of the dailies form a class by themselves in that they report the general news of the world and do not confine themselves to Jewish matters. The specifically Jewish newspapers (principally weeklies) may be characterized as political, social, religious, or communal, ranging from such as report current matters of moment in all parts of the world and of interest to the whole of Judaism to such as are devoted solely to local community and social gossip. Of the magazines, or periodicals in the narrower sense of the term, some are literary and belletristic, others scientific. The former contain essays, stories, and poems generally, but not always, of a specifically Jewish nature; with such magazines may be classed as special subdivisions some juvenile and a few humoristic publications. The scientific magazines include some which deal, most often in a semipopular fashion, with the general sciences—physics, astronomy, geography, etc. (these are principally found among the Judæo-Spanish journals of Turkey); economics and agriculture (chiefly those devoted to the subject of colonization); and the household sciences (mostly papers for women's interests). The larger part of the scientific periodicals, however, deals with the so-called "Jewish sciences": Jewish history, Bible exegesis, Hebrew philology, bibliography, pedagogics, theology, philosophy, and religion. In addition to all these there are publications for special classes of readers—e.g., cantors, students, members of athletic associations—while various charitable and other societies issue regular reports of their activities. Many periodicals do not belong to one or other of these various classes exclusively; some, indeed, can be classified only as general, so diversified are their contents. Most of the weekly newspapers, for instance, make a specialty of presenting, sometimes in feuilletons or even in separate supplements, stories, essays, and poems, as well as scientific articles, while the technical magazines often devote special columns to news items. Some of the magazines, too, are illustrated; indeed, one or two have been established especially in the interests of art. Calendars and annuals, in so far as they contain literary, scientific, and belletristic matter, may likewise be included under the term "periodicals."

History—Beginnings.

In the latter part of the century that saw the beginnings of non-Jewish periodical literature two attempts were made to found Jewish newspapers, both of them at Amsterdam, the center of Hebrew typography until the nineteenth century. The first was the Judæo-Spanish "Gazeta de Amsterdam" (Jan. 24-Nov. 14, 1678); the second, the Judæo-German semiweekly ("Dienstagische" and "Freitagische") "Kurant" (Aug., 1686-Dec., 1687). Although it is of interest to note that the word "Zeitung" (in Hebrew characters) was used in 1688 in the title ("Zeitung aus Indien") of the Judæo-German translation of Moses Pereyra's "Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim," almost an entire century passed after the two Amsterdam publications ceased before another Jewish newspaper made its appearance.

But in the meantime the beginnings of magazine-journalism had likewise been made. Perhaps the "Peri 'Eẓ Ḥayyim" (1728-61)—also of Amsterdam—a monthly Hebrew bulletin containing the rabbinical decisions of the members of the Sephardic bet ha-midrash (Arbol de las Vidas), may be regarded as the first Jewish magazine. That honor is generally claimed, however, for the "Ḳohelet Musar," which Moses Mendelssohn, assisted by Tobias Back, started to issue in 1750 as a Hebrew weekly devoted to ethico-philosophical questions; only two numbers appeared. About this time Benjamin ben Zalman Croneburg of Neuwied planned to publish a general Jewish newspaper under the title "Der Grosse Schauplatz"; but only a fragment of one issue of the paper, in German with Hebrew characters, has been preserved. In 1771 was made another of these early attempts to establish Jewish newspapers—Jewish, however, only because of their readers, not because of their contents—this time in Germany. It was called the "Dyhernfurther Privilegirte Zeitung," and was a German weekly in Hebrew characters printed from Dec., 1771, until some time in the following year. It contained news from foreign parts, such as Warsaw and Constantinople, as well as market reports, etc. Above the title was pictured the coat of arms of the city of Dyhernfurth. The last of this class of periodicals for some time was one which appeared for half a year in Alsace, a political weekly entitled simply "Zeitung" (Metz, 1789-90).

Of an entirely different nature from these newspapers was "Ha-Meassef," which was founded in 1784 by Mendelssohn's disciples. As the successful monthly organ of the Maskilim, it really inaugurated the Hebrew press. It appeared in seven volumes, and then was forced to suspend by the successful issue of the very purposes for which it had been established; for the wider participation on the part of the Jews in the culture of their neighbors was attended by a growing disinclination to use Hebrew.

1801-30:

Nineteenth Century.

The nineteenth century opened without the existence of any Jewish periodical; and when efforts were resumed to utilize this class of publications in furthering reforms in the internal and external status of Judaism, the necessity for the use of the vernacular was realized. Of the seventeen or eighteen attempts at founding periodicals in the first quarter of the new century, fourteen were in languages other than Hebrew, by far the larger proportion in German. In Bohemia the first Jewish magazine, the "Jüdische Monatsschrift,"German in Hebrew characters, was published by a literary society for a few months in 1802; and in 1811 appeared the "Jahrbücher für Israeliten und Israelitinnen," which was modeled on the annual "Taschenbücher" appearing in the non-Jewish world and contained literary and belletristic matter. In Holland a Dutch newspaper, "Sulamith," appeared from 1806 until 1808, and a "Jaarboek" was published in the latter year. In Germany the following periodicals in German were established: a successful Reform monthly with general contents, which was likewise called "Sulamith" and appeared fairly regularly for about nineteen years from 1806; "Jedidja" (1817-23), a religious, moral, and pedagogic semiannual; the "Zeitschrift für die Reifere Jugend" ("Ḳeren Tushiyyah," Fürth, 1817); the "Taschenbücher zur Belehrung der Jugend" (1818-1820; an annual), noteworthy as the first periodicals for the young; "Der Bibel'sche Orient" (1821), an unsuccessful attempt at establishing a cabalistic periodical; the "Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums" (1822), the first German literary-scientific paper, one which, despite its merits, failed to find a reading public; and "Geist der Pharisäischen Lehre" (1823-24), the first rabbinical magazine. In 1823, also, were published the first Jewish papers in England and America, both in English: the "Hebrew Intelligencer," an anonymous monthly in London, and "The Jew," a monthly in New York (the latter was continued for two years). In Poland there appeared "Der Beobachter an der Weichsel," in Judæo-German, printed at Warsaw in 1823-24.

Of the various Hebrew periodicals that were published in the course of this period one was a German attempt to continue "Ha-Meassef" under the title "Ha-Meassef he-Ḥadash" (1809-11); the second was the similar publication of the Dutch To'elet Society and called "Bikkure To'elet" (1820); the third, the Austrian "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" (1820-31), was one of the two periodicals thus far mentioned that outlived the first quarter of the century, although sporadic attempts were made within the following ten years to revive the two most successful of the German periodicals. The "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" marks the commencement of a new phase, locally, of Jewish history. What "Ha-Meassef" had been for Germany, the "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" became for Austria, where the Haskalah movement now first became active. Its general excellence attained for it a wide circulation; and though it was destined to live hardly more than ten years, it was nevertheless after a short interval followed by a line of worthy successors. Between 1825 and 1831 it was apparently the only regularly published periodical in the whole of the Jewish world.

1831-40:

Nevertheless in Germany the decade 1831-40 was to be one of great journalistic activity, both politically and literary-scientifically; no less than fifteen periodicals printed in German were established during this time, among them several which at least from the standpoint of longevity were eminently successful; one of them, indeed, is still being published. The first periodical of the decade was "Der Jude," almost exclusively political; despite a promising beginning in an important field it endured only four years (1832-35). In 1833 another volume of "Jedidja" was published, and "Zion," a religious paper, began a two years' career. In 1834 Philippson's "Israelitisches Predigt- und Schul-Magazin" appeared. In the following year "Das Füllhorn" (1835-36), with the object of furnishing instructive, useful, and entertaining reading matter and of discussing Jewish events of interest, furnished a new type of paper, being followed by "Die Synagoge" (1837-39). Of greater importance was the founding in 1835 of Geiger's "Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift für Jüdische Theologie," in which the foremost scholars of the time united to popularize the "Jewish sciences." Its success was marked; it appeared, though with interruptions, until 1844, and then for a short time in 1847.

The "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums."

But these scientific, instructive, and edificative journals, apart from the irregularity of their appearance, left a want to be supplied, which Philippson, discontinuing his theological paper, in 1837 set about to fill. In the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums" was furnished the first successful paper to take part in the every-day life of the Jew, and in the course of its history it was instrumental in introducing many reforms and establishing several important societies and institutions. As it appeared at first three times and then regularly once a week, it was enabled to fulfil in part the duties of a newspaper also. The "Allgemeines Archiv des Judenthums" (1839-43) was a revival of "Jedidja"; Jost's "Israelitische Annalen" (1839-41) sought to be both a newspaper and a scientific and literary magazine; "Der Israelit des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts" (1839-1848), another Reform paper, was particularly religious, but had also a literary tendency at times. Even more active and more enduring was Fürst's "Der Orient" (1840-51), founded in the last year of this decade, with general contents, and with a separate" Litteraturblatt" which to-day still offers a veritable mine for the student of Jewish literature, history, and archeology. "Ẓiyyon" (1841-42), another scientific and religious (Reform) paper, and "Sinai" (1846), for "Jewish learning and ethics," may also be mentioned.

Outside of Germany the only periodical founded that survived the decade was the Austrian "Kerem Ḥemed" (1833-42), which was established as the successor of the Haskalic "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" and appeared as somewhat of an innovation in style, its articles on exegetical, archeological, and literary-historical questions being in the form of letters. In Switzerland appeared "Altes und Neues Morgenland" (1834-40), an exegetical monthly; in France, the "Archives Israélites de France"—the first successful French publication and the second oldest Jewish paper now in existence—and an earlier attempt, "Die Wiedergeburt" ("La Régénération," 1836-37) of Strasburg, probably the first bilingual Jewish paper; in England, the "Hebrew Review and Magazine for Rabbinical Literature" (1834-35); and in Holland, the "Jaarboeken voor de Israelieten in Nederland" (1835-40).

1841-50:

The religious activity of the fifth decade of the century was attended by correspondingly increasing journalistic productiveness, the numberof new periodicals being no less than seventy. Germany continued to lead in this respect; there was also a decided revival of interest in Hebrew, while both English and French journalism were likewise established on a permanent basis. As many as twenty-five new German periodicals appeared, five of them in Austria, and one each in England and America; about fifteen Hebrew, of which five appeared in Germany, an equal number in Austria, two or three each in Galicia and Holland, and one in England; and at least thirteen English, of which one in America and one in England were destined to endure a long time. Only the most noteworthy of these periodicals, such as introduced or established some phase of journalism, will receive particular mention.

"Jewish Chronicle."

The "Revue Orientale" (1841-46) was the first periodical in Belgium. The "Voice of Jacob" (1841-1848), with Reform tendencies, was the first English newspaper deserving of the term; but far more successful was the "Jewish Chronicle," with the opposite religious tendency at first, and which, established in the same year, is the oldest existing publication in English. "Pirḥe Ẓafon" (Wilna, 1841-44), for literary criticism, Biblical and Talmudical researches, and news, was apparently Russia's first periodical. In 1842 Isidor Busch of Vienna with his "Kalender und Jahrbuch für Israeliten" (1842-47; and 1854-67), containing a summary of the news of the year, as well as historical, scientific, belletristic, and other entertaining matter, made this class of publications a valuable addition to periodical literature. A Judæo-Spanish journal, the "Chronica Israelitica"—the first since the "Gazeta de Amsterdam"—was published in Gibraltar in 1842, and another, "Esperanza Israelitica," in 1843. "The Occident," a monthly of Conservative tendencies, was the first really successful periodical in the United States (Philadelphia, 1843-69). An important German publication of this period was Frankel's "Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums" (1844-46, but continued later under a different title). Hungary as yet did not offer a promising field for journalistic enterprise; in 1844 Leopold Löw attempted to publish his "Ben Chananja" for the Jews of that country, but at Leipsic; fourteen years passed before he renewed his attempt. "Yerushalayimn" (Zolkiev, 1844; Lemberg, then Prague, 1845), in Hebrew, was the first Galician publication. "First Fruits of the West" is of interest because it was published in Kingston, Jamaica (1844).

The successful German papers until this time all had had Reform tendencies; as religious agitation increased, party lines were drawn more closely, and journals were established to serve as official organs of Orthodoxy and moderate Reform, as well as of Radicalism. The first successful Orthodox paper was "Der Treue Zionswächter" (1845-55), with a Hebrew supplement, "Shomer Ẓiyyon ha-Ne'eman"; "Ha-Yareaḥ" (1845) in Hebrew, and with the same tendency, lived but a short time. Another attempt at founding a periodical for mysticism—"Der Kabbalistische Biblische Occident"—ended with the first number. In France "L'Univers Israélite," Conservative, founded in 1844, takes its place beside the "Archives Israélites" among the oldest of existing periodicals; other, but short-lived, journals appeared there in the next two years. For the Austrian Haskalah, the "Kerem Ḥemed" having ceased publication in 1843, the "Kokebe Yiẓḥaḳ" (1845-73) was established, and proved to be the longest-lived of the "Bikkure ha-'lttim's" successors. In England the first literary magazine, entitled "Sabbath Leaves" (1845), and a religious paper, "The Cup of Salvation" (1846), were established, the latter with the patronage of Sir Moses Montefiore; but, like various other English papers of the next few years, they existed but a short time. The "Magyar Zsinagóga" (1846-47) and the "Evkönyo Zsido" (1848) seem to have been the first periodicals in Hungarian; the scientific "Rivista Israelitica" (published for a few years from 1845), the first in Italian, and the Judæo-Spanish "Puerta del Oriente," or "Sha'are Mizraḥ" (1846), the first in Turkey.

In 1847 the "Jewish Chronicle" of England from a fortnightly became a weekly, and Geiger's "Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift" resumed publication for a short time. In 1848 are to be noted "Die Zeitung"—this and "Die Jüdische Post" (1849) were the first Galician Judæo-German papers; "Die Zeitschwingen," "Die Zeitung für's Judenthum," and the "Centralorgan für Glaubensfreiheit"—the first German papers in Vienna, all edited by Busch and all unsuccessful; Einhorn's "Ungarische Israelit," the first German paper published in Hungary, and one which gave the first impulse to Reform in that country; and the "Liturgische Zeitschrift" (1848-62) in Germany, the first periodical devoted to synagogal music and to the interests of cantors. In Holland the weekly "Nieuws en Advertenticblaad," and the literary "Tijdschrift," were founded in 1849; the former, with various changes of title, continued to appear until 1893. In 1849, also, appeared in America "The Asmonean" (until 1858), the first weekly there; "Israel's Herold," short-lived, but noteworthy as the first German-American paper (both of these appeared in New York); and the "Jewish Advocate" (of Philadelphia); "The Hebrew Leader," a Conservative paper established in 1850, is noteworthy at least in that it continued to appear until 1882.

1851-60:

The decade 1851-60 was characterized by a steadily increasing attention on the part of German periodicals to the scientific aspect of Judaism, perhaps at the expense of purely religious interests, the comparative silence of the so-called official organs being noteworthy (in 1860 the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums" was practically the only paper making propaganda for Reform); there were also renewed attention to the Hebrew press, especially in Galicia, and marked journalistic activity in America. To the four or five German periodicals already established on a permanent basis were added in Germany and Austria eleven or twelve which were to have a life of ten years or more—three of them are still in existence. It is worthy of note, furthermore, that of the total thirty new German periodicals established in this period one-third were literary "Jahrbücher." Fourteen new Hebrew publications likewise were founded.