Nagid

—Ancient and Biblical:

The valley of the Nile north of the first cataract, having an area of 9,000-12,000 square miles of arable ground. Almost rainless, the country depends upon the inundations of the Nile and artificial irrigation (comp. Deuteronomy 11:10; 14:18), although the narrow valley and its triangular prolongation of alluvium, the Delta or Lower Egypt, possess an extremely fertile soil. Egypt had in early times a very limited flora, which, like its fauna, was of an entirely African character. The same may be said of its population, which, quite in agreement with Genesis 10, formed a branch of the great white African or Hamitic family.

Tradition has preserved the recollection of the early division of Egypt into two kingdoms, (a) that of the red crown in the north, whose capital was Buto, and (b) that of the white crown in the south, with its capital at Eileithyiaspolis, the modern El-Kab; and in literary style Egypt is always designated as "the two countries" (comp. "Miẓrayim," dual, but see below). Yet these formed one kingdom even before King Menes (about 3500 B.C.?), whom the later books of history considered as the first historical king. The division of the country into about thirty (thirty-six?; later, forty-two) nomes or counties points to a still more primitive period, indicating that many independent tribes may have inhabited the land.

Some very primitive traits always adhere even to the later, highly developed culture. The clothing was remarkably scanty long after 3000 B.C.; and the scarcity of metals, although these were known very early, forced not only priests (in analogy with the old Israelitish custom referred to in Exodus 4:25 and Joshua 5:2), but also sculptors, masons, and other craftsmen, generally to use stone implements nearly up to 1000 B.C. The religion above all remained most primitive: it never concealed that its hundreds of local divinities, its sacred animals, trees, and stones, had their most perfect analogy and origin in the fetishism or animism of the negroes, although even in prehistoric time higher ideas, partly of undoubtedly Asiatic origin (especially traits of that astral mythology of which the clearest expression is found in Babylonia), mingled with it. The language and the race remained very consistent.

The history of Egypt can be best divided after the system of see see MANETHO, using his scheme of thirty royal dynasties from Menes to Alexander. Although these groups of kings do not represent genealogically correct divisions, and are often quite conventional, the uncertainty of chronology, especially before 2000 B.C., forces the student to use that arrangement. Dynasties 1-6 are called the ancient empire, dynasties 11-13 the middle empire, and dynasties 18-26 the new empire.

The Ancient Empire.

The tombs of Manetho's "Thinitic" dynasties 1 and 2 have recently been excavated near This Abydos (see especially Petrie, "Royal Tombs," 1900 et seq.). Whether that of the half-legendary Menes is among them remains disputed, but some of the tombs may be even earlier. The arts and architecture were even then highly developed at the royal court; and that the system of hieroglyphic writing was perfectly established as early as 3500 B.C. is shown by the inscriptions. The residence of those ancient kings seems to have been partly at This, partly in the ancient capitals of Upper Egypt, the twin cities Hieraconpolis and Eileithyiaspolis. Less well known at present is dynasty 3, which moved the capital not far south of Memphis. The earliest known pyramid (in steps, because unfinished), near Saḳḳarah, was built by King Zoser of this dynasty, who seems to have first exploited the mines near Sinai, which furnished the copper for tools and weapons. Dynasty 4 (from about 2900?) is famous for the construction of the three largest pyramids, those of Cheops (Khufu), Chephren(Kha'f-re'), and Mycerinus(Men-ka[u]-re') near Gizeh—monuments which the successors did not try to imitate. Snefru(i), the first king, seems to have waged extensive wars in Nubia and Palestine. From dynasty 5 remainders exist of several gigantic monuments in the form of huge obelisks (not monolithic!) on platforms, dedicated to the sun-god Re' (see Pillars). In dynasty King Pepy (pronounced "Apopy"?) I. (c. 2450 B.C.) was a great builder; he founded Memphis proper. With dynasty 6 closes the period called conventionally the ancient empire. Of its literature only religious and magic texts (chiefly from the funerary chambers of the pyramids in dynasties 5 and 6; comp. Maspero, "Les Inscriptions des Pyramides de Saqqarah," 1894) have been preserved. Egyptian sculpture reached its acme of perfection at that time.

The Middle Empire.

After the sixth dynasty the centralization of the government broke down, and the nomarchs or counts became independent princes. The long wars which they waged over their possessions or the crown of the whole country, led to the establishment of two rival kingdoms, one (dynasties 9 and 10) at Heracleopolis, the other (dynasty 11) at Thebes. The younger Theban family finally united Egypt again under one scepter (c. 2150 B.C.?). Much more important is the 12th (Theban) dynasty (c. 2000 to 1800 B.C.) of seven kings—four of whom were called Amen-em-ḥe't, and three Usertesen (or Sa-n-usor-et)—and a queen. The fertile oasis of Fa(i)yum was created by diking off (not excavating) the lake called "Moeris" (after Amen-em-ḥe't III.). Nubia to above the second cataract was conquered; but a powerful Canaanitish kingdom prevented conquests, in Asia—only Usertesen III. records an expedition to Palestine.

The following period (13th and 14th dynasties) soon developed the former decentralization, together with civil wars and anarchy. One hundred and fifty kings—e., aspirers to the crown—are recorded. This explains the ability of a Syrian power, the so-called Hyksos (better "Hyku-ssos" = "foreign rulers," mistranslated "shepherd kings" in Manetho), to conquer Egypt (c. 1700?). On this family of (7?) rulers, in whose time, after Exodus 12:40, the immigration of Israel into Egypt is usually assumed, APÔPHIS. Most scholars consider them as Canaanites, somewhat after Josephus' confusion of "Hykussos" and "Israelites"; but it seems that those kings were of non-Semitic (northern?) origin (comp. "Mittheilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft," 1898, p. 107). The nomarchs of Thebes revolted against the foreigners (c. 1620 B.C.?), and after a long struggle, especially around the stronghold of the foreigners, Hat-wa'ret (Auaris) (near Tanis?), expelled the Hykussos soon after 1600.

The New Empire.